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The Bengali Calendar or Bangla Calendar (Bengali: বঙ্গাব্দ, lit.'Baṅgābda') is a luni-solar calendar used in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. A revised version of the calendar is the national and official calendar in Bangladesh and an earlier version of the calendar is followed in the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam. The New Year in the Bengali calendar is known as Pohela Boishakh.

The Bengali era is called Bengali Sambat (BS)^[1] or the Bengali year (বাংলা সনBangla Sôn, বাংলা সালBangla sal, or Bangabda)^[2] has a zero year that starts in 593/594 CE. It is 594 less than the AD or CE year in the Gregorian calendar if it is before Pôhela Bôishakh, or 593 less if after Pôhela Bôishakh.

The revised version of the Bengali calendar was officially adopted in Bangladesh in 1987.^[3][4] Among the Bengali community in India, the traditional Bengali Hindu calendar continues to be in use, and it sets the Hindu festivals.^[5]

• 1History
• 2Organization
• 3Traditional and revised versions
• 5References

History[edit]

According to Shamsuzzaman Khan,^[6] and Nitish Sengupta, the origin of the Bengali calendar is unclear.^[2]

Buddhist/Hindu influence[edit]

Some historians attribute the Bengali calendar to the 7th century Hindu king Shashanka.^[3][6][2] The term Bangabda (Bangla year) is found too in two Shiva temples many centuries older than Akbar era, suggesting that a Bengali calendar existed long before Akbar's time.^[2]

Hindus developed a calendar system in ancient times.^[7]Jyotisha, one of the six ancient Vedangas,^[8][9] was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time.^[8][9][10] The ancient Indian culture developed a sophisticated time keeping methodology and calendars for Vedic rituals.^[7]

The Hindu Vikrami calendar is named after king Vikramaditya and starts in 57 BC.^[11] In rural Bengali communities of India, the Bengali calendar is credited to 'Bikromaditto', like many other parts of India and Nepal. However, unlike these regions where it starts in 57 BC, the Bengali calendar starts from 593 suggesting that the starting reference year was adjusted at some point.^[12][13]

Various dynasties whose territories extended into Bengal, prior to the 13th-century, used the Vikrami calendar. For example, Buddhist texts and inscriptions created in the Pala Empire era mention 'Vikrama' and the months such as Ashvin, a system found in Sanskrit texts elsewhere in ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent.^[14][15]

Hindu scholars attempted to keep time by observing and calculating the cycles of sun (Surya), moon and the planets. These calculations about the sun appears in various Sanskrit astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th century Aryabhatiya by Aryabhata, the 6th century Romaka by Latadeva and Panca Siddhantika by Varahamihira, the 7th century Khandakhadyaka by Brahmagupta and the 8th century Sisyadhivrddida by Lalla.^[16] These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion.^[16] Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been complete sometime between the 5th century and 10th century.^[16]

The current Bengali calendar in use by Bengali people in the Indian states such as West Bengal, Tripura, Assam and Jharkhand is based on the Sanskrit text Surya Siddhanta. It retains the historic Sanskrit names of the months, with the first month as Baishakh.^[3] Their calendar remains tied to the Hindu calendar system and is used to set the various Bengali Hindu festivals.^[3]

Influence on Islamic Calendar[edit]

Another theory is that the calendar was first developed by Alauddin Husain Shah (reign 1494–1519), a Hussain Shahi sultan of Bengal by combining the lunar Islamic calendar (Hijri) with the solar calendar, prevalent in Bengal.^[2] Yet another theory states that the Sasanka calendar was adopted by Alauddin Husain Shah when he witnessed the difficulty with collecting land revenue by the Hijra calendar.^[2]

During the Mughal rule, land taxes were collected from Bengali people according to the Islamic Hijri calendar. This calendar was a lunar calendar, and its new year did not coincide with the solar agricultural cycles. According to some sources, the current Bengali calendar owes its origin in Bengal to the rule of Mughal Emperor Akbar who adopted it to time the tax year to the harvest. The Bangla year was therewith called Bangabda. Akbar asked the royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi to create a new calendar by combining the lunar Islamic calendar and solar Hindu calendar already in use, and this was known as Fasholi shan (harvest calendar). According to some historians, this started the Bengali calendar.^[3][17] According to Shamsuzzaman Khan, it could be Nawab Murshid Quli Khan, a Mughal governor, who first used the tradition of Punyaho as 'a day for ceremonial land tax collection', and used Akbar's fiscal policy to start the Bangla calendar.^[6][18]

It is unclear whether it was adopted by Hussain Shah or Akbar. The tradition to use the Bengali calendar may have been started by Hussain Shah before Akbar.^[2] According to Amartya Sen, Akbar's official calendar 'Tarikh-ilahi' with the zero year of 1556 was a blend of pre-existing Hindu and Islamic calendars. It was not used much in India outside of Akbar's Mughal court, and after his death the calendar he launched was abandoned. However, adds Sen, there are traces of the 'Tarikh-ilahi' that survive in the Bengali calendar.^[19] Regardless of who adopted the Bengali calendar and the new year, states Sen, it helped collect land taxes after the spring harvest based on traditional Bengali calendar, because the Islamic Hijri calendar created administrative difficulties in setting the collection date.^[2]

Shamsuzzaman states, 'it is called Bangla san or saal, which are Arabic and Parsee words respectively, suggests that it was introduced by a Muslim king or sultan.'^[6] In contrast, according to Sen, its traditional name is Bangabda.^[2][20] In the era of the Akbar, the calendar was called as Tarikh-e-Elahi (তারিখ-ই ইলাহি). In the 'Tarikh-e-Elahi' version of the calendar, each day of the month had a separate name, and the months had different names from what they have now. According to Banglapedia, Akbar's grandson Shah Jahan reformed the calendar to use a seven-day week that begins on Sunday, and the names of the months were changed at an unknown time to match the month names of the existing Saka calendar.^[4] This calendar is the foundation of the calendar that has been in use by the people of Bangladesh.^[5][4][2]

Organization[edit]

The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar.^[5][4]

Months[edit]

Days[edit]

The Bengali Calendar incorporates the seven-day week as used by many other calendars. The names of the days of the week in the Bengali Calendar are based on the Navagraha (Bengali: নবগ্রহnôbôgrôhô). The day begins and ends at sunrise in the Bengali calendar, unlike in the Gregorian calendar, where the day starts at midnight.

According to some scholars, in the calendar originally introduced by Akbar in the year 1584 AD, each day of the month had a different name, but this was cumbersome, and his grandson Shah Jahan changed this to a 7-day week as in the Gregorian calendar, with the week also starting on a Sunday.^[4]

Traditional and revised versions[edit]

Differences[edit]

The current Bengali calendar in use in the Indian states is based on the Sanskrit text Surya Siddhanta. It retains the historic Sanskrit names of the months, with the first month as Baishakh.^[3] Their calendar remains tied to the Hindu calendar system and is used to set the various Bengali Hindu festivals.^[3]

In Bangladesh, however, the old Bengali calendar was modified in 1966 by a committee headed by Muhammad Shahidullah, making the first five months 31 days long, the rest 30 days each, with the month of Falgun adjusted to 31 days in every leap year.^[3] This was officially adopted by Bangladesh in 1987.^[3][4]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Ratan Kumar Das (1996). IASLIC Bulletin. Indian Association of Special Libraries & Information Centres. p. 76.
2. ^ ^abcdefghijNitish K. Sengupta (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books India. pp. 96–98. ISBN978-0-14-341678-4.
3. ^ ^abcdefghiKunal Chakrabarti; Shubhra Chakrabarti (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis. Scarecrow. pp. 114–115. ISBN978-0-8108-8024-5.
4. ^ ^abcdefSyed Ashraf Ali (2012). 'Bangabda'. In Sirajul Islam; Ahmed A. Jamal (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (2nd ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
5. ^ ^abcKunal Chakrabarti; Shubhra Chakrabarti (2013). 'Calendar'. Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis. Scarecrow Press. pp. 114–5. ISBN978-0-8108-8024-5.
6. ^ ^abcdGuhathakurta, Meghna; Schendel, Willem van (2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN9780822353188.
7. ^ ^abKim Plofker 2009, pp. 10, 35–36, 67.
8. ^ ^abMonier Monier-Williams (1923). A Sanskrit–English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 353.
9. ^ ^abJames Lochtefeld (2002), 'Jyotisha' in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN0-8239-2287-1, pages 326–327
10. ^Friedrich Max Müller (1860). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate. pp. 210–215.
11. ^Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 122, 142. ISBN978-0-19-874557-0.
12. ^Morton Klass (1978). From Field to Factory: Community Structure and Industrialization in West Bengal. University Press of America. pp. 166–167. ISBN978-0-7618-0420-8.
13. ^Ralph W. Nicholas (2003). Fruits of Worship: Practical Religion in Bengal. Orient Blackswan. pp. 13–23. ISBN978-81-8028-006-1.
14. ^D. C. Sircar (1965). Indian Epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 241, 272–273. ISBN978-81-208-1166-9.
15. ^Richard Salomon (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. pp. 148, 246–247, 346. ISBN978-0-19-509984-3.
16. ^ ^abcEbenezer Burgess (1989). P Ganguly, P Sengupta (ed.). Sûrya-Siddhânta: A Text-book of Hindu Astronomy. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society. pp. vii–xi. ISBN978-81-208-0612-2.
17. ^'Pahela Baishakh'. Banglapedia. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. 2015.
18. ^'Google Doodle Celebrates Pohela Boishakh in Bangladesh'. Time. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
19. ^Amartya Sen (2005). The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 319–322. ISBN978-0-374-10583-9.
20. ^Syed Ashraf Ali, Bangabda, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh

Bibliography[edit]

• Kim Plofker (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-12067-6.

Bs 1377 Part 9

External links[edit]

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• Bengali calendar Official Bengali Calendar
• Bengali calendar according to Vishuddha Siddhanta Panjika
• Bangla Panjikas according to Surya Siddhanta

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a penetration test used to evaluate the subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The results of these tests are used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.^[1]

The CBR test was developed by the California Division of Highways to classify and evaluate soil-sub grade and base course materials for flexible pavements. An empirical test, the CBR test has been used to determine the material properties for pavement design. Empirical tests measure the strength of the material and are not a true representation of the resilient modulus.^{[clarification needed]} It is a penetration test in which a standard piston, with a diameter of 3 in or 76 mm, is used to penetrate the soil at a standard rate of 1.25 mm/minute. The pressure up to a penetration of 12.5 mm and its ratio to the bearing value of a standard crushed rock is termed as the CBR.In most cases, CBR decreases as the penetration increases. The ratio at 2.5 mm penetration is used as the CBR. In some cases, the ratio at 5 mm may be greater than that at 2.5 mm. If this occurs, the ratio at 5 mm should be used. The CBR is a measure of resistance of a material to penetration of a standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions. The test procedure should be strictly adhered to if a high degree of reproducibility is desired. The CBR test may be conducted on a remolded or undisturbed specimen in the laboratory. The test is simple and has been extensively investigated for field correlations of flexible pavement thickness requirement.

The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould of 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking. The specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water absorption values are noted. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading frame.

Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with diameter 50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.

The CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to the standard loads mentioned above. The CBR can therefore be mathematically expressed as:

${\displaystyle CBR=\frac{p}{p_s}\cdot 100}$

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References[edit]

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